Difference between revisions of "Discourse particles"

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The term 'particle' is often used for a variety of minor function words that do not fit easily into larger, more familiar lexical categories (noun, verb, preposition, etc.), and syntacticians often separate these due to their unique functions that distinguish them from other words. Traditional English grammars and instruction often conflated these with other word groups, not realizing their unique syntactic properties or pragmatic functions. As such, 'particle' has seemingly become somewhat of a dumping ground, so to speak, for function words that syntacticians do not not what to do with; however, there are valid reasons for separating them, as each group performs unique functions. The exact classifications may depend on the particular linguist or theoretical paradigm, but here is a general list.
 
  
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==Syntactic particles==
 
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These are strictly syntactic categories, based on syntactic criteria.
 
  
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===Phrasal verb particles===  
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=== Like  ===
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These are the so-called adverbial adjuncts of [[phrasal verb]]s, which are not really adverbs, nor are they prepositions, in phrases like ''turn it on, go about, get around, get over.'' They are mostly recruited from the class of prepositions, but are not used in these verbs as prepositions. While they act as modifiers of sorts to the main verb, they do more, in that often the whole verb is a metaphorical extension of the original verb and preposition. For example, ''get over it'' (e.g., recover physically or emotionally) is metaphorical, and not semantically a sum of the constituent parts. The syntactic behavior is neither prepositional nor adverbial, e.g., in that they may move (''turn on the radio = turn the radio on'') and are often stranded at the end of a sentence (e.g,. ''get it on''). Rather, they serve to form a compound verb. Phrasal verbs are essentially a type of compound verb.
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[[Like|See separate article on ''like'']]
  
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===Negative particles===
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Besides the colloquial use of ''like'' as a preposition, more colloquial uses of like have become popular in English in recent decades. These uses comprise two basic linguistic functions:
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The function words ''no'' and ''not'' do not act like adverbs, strictly speaking. Their sentence positions can differ from the placement of other adverbs, and their function is not so much to modify a verb or adjective, in the typical sense of 'modify,' but to negate it.  
 
  
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===Infinitive particle===
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{| class="wikitable"
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The function word ''to'' in infinitives (e.g., "I want to go") does not function as a preposition, as it is used to form a tenseless, uninflected verb. It functions more like an auxiliary verb, because (1) it occurs in the same position before main verbs as do other auxiliaries, and (2)it can be used anaphorically like other auxiliary verbs, i.e., it acts as a pro-form to avoid repetition of a verb phrase. (Anaphors and pro-forms stand in for other words, e.g, pronouns standing in for full nouns.)  See Pullam (1982)<ref>Pullam, Geoffrey. (1982). Syncategorematicity and English infinitival ''to.'' ''Glossa 16''(2), 181-213.</ref> and later citations thereof.
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: A. Do you intend to go to the party?
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| 6. REPORTING VERB (QUOTATIVE)
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: B. No, but I want to. (=want to go to the party), cf.  
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| ''Like'' and ''go'' in slang are used for directly or indirectly quoting, just like ''say, said, tell''. But ''like'' and ''go'' can also report what one is thinking at the time in the story. Whether it means''say'' or ''thought'' is often clear from the context; both meanings are often used in the same narrative in very informal speech. <br>
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: B. No, but I should. (=should go to the party)
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: I went to the clerk to ask him where the beer was, and he's like, "I don't know, I'm new here," so I'm like, yeah, sure, like, you should know this, man!
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|-
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| 7. [[Discourse particles|DISCOURSE PARTICLE]]
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| This is a type of word used often in colloquial English and slang. It doesn't really affect the meaning, but it makes your speech flow more smoothly and sound more natural and "cool". It can be used before a noun phrase, adjective, adverb, predicate, or even a whole clause or sentence. Other common [[discourse particles]] or [[discourse markers]] are ''well, like, you know,'' and the sentence-final ''though''. ''Like'' and ''It's like'' are also used at the beginning of a sentence. We use the discourse marker ''like'' in several ways.
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|}
  
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===Infinitive subject marker ''for''===
 
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In some sentences, ''for'' does not function as an actual preposition, but rather, acts to mark the subject of an infinitive.
 
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* For him to go to that country right now would simply be an unjustified risk.
 
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* I arranged for him to meet a nice, suitable person.
 
  
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===Complementizer particles===
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===New information===
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The complementizers introduce complement clauses and subordinates them to their main clauses. The most common is ''that'', as well as others like ''what'' in embedded questions.
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We use ''like'' sometimes to explain further or illustrate what we just said, to provide more facts or details to explain something. This is often done along with the emphasis, contrast, or softening functions below.  
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* I know that you did something last summer.  
 
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* I know what you did last summer.  
 
  
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: 1) My roommate never cleans when I ask him to. Like, I asked him yesterday to clean, and he never did it.  He's just too lazy. It's like, he just like sits around all day watching football and like doing nothing.<br>
  
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==Syntactic-pragmatic particles==
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: 2) A. And then you know, like myself, I don't show a lot of emotion, and my dad is like the same way — he hates to apologize and it's like he rarely ever does it – he like leaves it up in the air. 
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These are categories based on both pragmatic, functional criteria and syntactic criteria. Some of these tend to overlap with accepted syntactic categories, and these classifications may be more open to debate.  
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:: B. Do you think that when you're a parent you'll be different?
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:: A. Well, I think so because I'm a bit more willing to like sacrifice and give, instead of just feeling that I'm right.
  
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===Discourse particles===
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: 3) This guy is so cool. I mean, he's like the coolest fellow you could meet. Like, he's really nice and sweet, and always helps me. It's like, he's just the neatest guy in the world.
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[[Discourse particles]] are words like ''well, oh, uh, y'know, like, okay,'' and may be considered to be part of a larger category of [[discourse markers]] or discourse connectors (e.g., ''but, though, since, and...''). Discourse particles generally are outside the main clause structure, and are often separated from the clause by a minor intonational juncture or pitch fall; they also contain almost no inherent meaning, and their interpretation is largely pragmatic and contextual.  
 
  
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===Focus particles===
 
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This group may overlap with conjunctive adverbs and other adverbs in their traditional classifications, but may arguably form a separate category due to their unique pragmatic functions. They serve to emphasize a noun, verb or other set of information, or indicate additional information beyond that of the marked noun, verb, etc. For example, ''also, too'' are additive markers ("He also brought a bottle of wine"), and words like ''even, especially'' emphasize the marked item via implicature (König, 1991)<ref>König, Ekkehard. (1991). ''The meaning of focus particles.'' Routledge.</ref>. E.g.:
 
  
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* He even brought a bottle of wine.
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===Emphasis and contrast===
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* Especially noteworthy was the unusual gift.  
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We sometimes use ''like'' also to emphasize or stress what is important, or to show contrast, for example, to clarify a point, or to bring up a point or item again that was mentioned earlier in the conversation.
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# No, not that way. You know what I mean? Like going around it on the map.  
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# I think a lot has to do with humor, 'cuz like my best friend, we laugh at the dumbest things that no one else would laugh at.
  
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In the first sentence, ''even'' sets up an implicature - he could have brought, or did bring, other items, but in addition, he unexpectedly brought wine. In the second sentence, ''especially'' likewise modifies ''noteworthy'' by implying it goes beyond normal noteworthiness.
 
  
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===Softener, approximation===
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We can soften statements to make them a little more polite, or to indicate a figurative expression – roughly equivalent to ''like'' to mean "somewhat, kind of, approximately, about, so to speak."
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# Like, could you loan me like, $200?
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# I missed like 40 questions on the exam.
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# That guy is so ugly. His face could like sink a thousand ships.
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# He would follow around like every day until I had to call the police.
  
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==References==
 
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<references/>
 
  
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[[Category:Pragmatics]] [[Category:Grammar]]
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[[Category:Pragmatics]] [[Category:Grammar]]
 

Revision as of 06:21, 25 May 2016


1 Like

See separate article on like

Besides the colloquial use of like as a preposition, more colloquial uses of like have become popular in English in recent decades. These uses comprise two basic linguistic functions:

6. REPORTING VERB (QUOTATIVE) Like and go in slang are used for directly or indirectly quoting, just like say, said, tell. But like and go can also report what one is thinking at the time in the story. Whether it meanssay or thought is often clear from the context; both meanings are often used in the same narrative in very informal speech.
I went to the clerk to ask him where the beer was, and he's like, "I don't know, I'm new here," so I'm like, yeah, sure, like, you should know this, man!
7. DISCOURSE PARTICLE This is a type of word used often in colloquial English and slang. It doesn't really affect the meaning, but it makes your speech flow more smoothly and sound more natural and "cool". It can be used before a noun phrase, adjective, adverb, predicate, or even a whole clause or sentence. Other common discourse particles or discourse markers are well, like, you know, and the sentence-final though. Like and It's like are also used at the beginning of a sentence. We use the discourse marker like in several ways.


2 New information

We use like sometimes to explain further or illustrate what we just said, to provide more facts or details to explain something. This is often done along with the emphasis, contrast, or softening functions below.

1) My roommate never cleans when I ask him to. Like, I asked him yesterday to clean, and he never did it. He's just too lazy. It's like, he just like sits around all day watching football and like doing nothing.
2) A. And then you know, like myself, I don't show a lot of emotion, and my dad is like the same way — he hates to apologize and it's like he rarely ever does it – he like leaves it up in the air.
B. Do you think that when you're a parent you'll be different?
A. Well, I think so because I'm a bit more willing to like sacrifice and give, instead of just feeling that I'm right.
3) This guy is so cool. I mean, he's like the coolest fellow you could meet. Like, he's really nice and sweet, and always helps me. It's like, he's just the neatest guy in the world.


3 Emphasis and contrast

We sometimes use like also to emphasize or stress what is important, or to show contrast, for example, to clarify a point, or to bring up a point or item again that was mentioned earlier in the conversation.

  1. No, not that way. You know what I mean? Like going around it on the map.
  2. I think a lot has to do with humor, 'cuz like my best friend, we laugh at the dumbest things that no one else would laugh at.


4 Softener, approximation

We can soften statements to make them a little more polite, or to indicate a figurative expression – roughly equivalent to like to mean "somewhat, kind of, approximately, about, so to speak."

  1. Like, could you loan me like, $200?
  2. I missed like 40 questions on the exam.
  3. That guy is so ugly. His face could like sink a thousand ships.
  4. He would follow around like every day until I had to call the police.
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