Academic versus non-academic sources

Beginning college students may be unclear about the types of materials that they can refer to in papers, so it is necessary to provide an overview of different types of sources, and why some are preferred, possibly acceptable, or not suitable for college papers (e.g., research papers and essays). These generally fall into the category of general, popular sources, which are usually not suitable for college papers (but with exceptions), and academic papers. However, some better quality, higher level general sources might be okay, especially for first-year (and second-year) papers. These will be referred to as "quasi-academic" sources here.

1 Popular or general sources

The following have little or no quality control, expertise, or consistency in quality, in terms of the writers and producers of these contents, and would not be suitable for citing in college papers (but see below for exceptions).

1. Popular periodicals - magazines and newspapers written for a very general audience. Examples would include The Guardian, Seattle Times, Sports Illustrated, Vogue, Entertainment Weekly, Readers Digest

2. Popular books, i.e., non-fiction books written for a very general audience, and/or by authors who are not academic experts on their topic, and generally do not have references for their information. Examples include many popular self-help books, textbooks, and most books found in bookstores.

3. Dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other common reference works (including Wikipedia). The information in these works may be common knowledge or too mundane and general for an academic audience; or those producing the contents may not be qualified experts in the particular topic referenced, or the quality may be inconsistent.

4. Textbooks. Books written primarily as high school or college textbooks may not have suitable depth or expertise; they might contain bias or errors; and the information is generally common knowledge, at least in the particular field. For example, an introductory physics textbook would contain information that is not really new to other physicists.

5. Popular media sources. For example: TV shows, movies, blogs, popular music, Youtube videos, Facebook posts.

6. Works of fiction, e.g., novels.

1.1 Exceptions

There are some logical exceptions to this general guideline of not using popular sources, for example:

• In literature classes, it is common to cite fictional works (novels, poems, and such).
• In humanities courses, poplar media sources are often cited as examples of how literary works have been interpreted or adapted in film or TV; or as examples of how media and culture influence each other; or as examples of video techniques.
• In business courses, it is more common to cite popular periodicals (especially news sources) and popular books related to business, even in more advanced college courses.

2 Quasi-academic sources

The following are not academic sources, but represent higher quality contents among the world of popular sources. It is not unusual for such sources to be cited in first-year or second year college papers, or in certain fields like business, literature studies, or media studies. These sources are written by academic experts, or at least by people with some degree of expertise and professional knowledge in their fields, and are written at a college level.

1. Popular books by academic experts. These are written for readers who are not experts, but are educated enough to understand the level of writing; these are generally written at a college reading level. Examples include Stephen Pinker's The Language Instinct, Deborah Tannen's books on gender and communication issues in relationships or in workplaces like You Just Don't Understand and Talking from 9 to 5.

2. Higher level popular periodicals. These are written by people with some degree of expertise and professional skill in their fields, and are written at a college level. Examples include:

(a) Magazines like The Economist, Scientific American, National Geographic, Forbes, Business Week

(b) Top newspapers like The New York Times, Wall Street Journal

Less common types include:

1. Trade journals / publications. These are written for people working in a particular profession. The writers have at least some degree of academic or professional expertise, but the articles generally focus on practical issues of those in the profession. The articles are short, and may be a blend of personal, practical, and some research that may be cited. A good example is Chronicle of Higher Education for those working in higher education, as well as others for those in teaching professions. Others include Food Technology, Landscape Architecture.

2. An occasional academic lecture video by a professor may be found on sites like Youtube.

While these source types are mainly cited in freshman and sophomore papers, in some fields, it is also common to cite such sources in papers at the junior and senior levels; e.g., in some humanities and business classes, one may cite popular periodicals (especially news sources) and popular books related to business, media or fine arts, even in more advanced college courses.

3 Academic sources

These are written by academic experts, and these usually report original research by the authors. They are written for an audience of experts in the field (or at those with enough academic knowledge to understand them). The most common include academic research journals, monographs, and less often, edited volumes. Students will start to read some of these in their junior or senior level classes, and will use them in writing papers in such courses. Graduate students and professors read and use such materials all the time.

1. Academic journal. Short journal articles (e.g., 10-30 pages) report new, original research by the authors.

2. Monograph. This is an academic book on a specific research topic, and often consists of the author's original research on the topic, as well as a summary of current research.

3. Edited volume. This is an anthology of shorter, separate research papers by different authors on a research topic, published as a one-time book-style collection. This is overseen by an editor. For example, Tannen's Framing in Discourse is edited by Tannen, and contains various papers by Tannen and other researchers about the linguistic structures of conversations.

These kinds of sources have a process of vetting or quality control. Journal articles, for example, have a peer review process to filter out lesser quality articles. A researcher wanting to publish a paper submits it to the journal editor, who sends it to three expert reviewers (usually professors who are experts in the particular topic). The reviewers give anonymous feedback to the authors and decide to (1) accept it, (2) accept it after having the author make changes, or (3) reject it if it is not suitable or of good quality for the journal.

Other academic sources may not be so good for college students. Students may not have the expertise to understand these, or to discern whether they contain good research or reliable information, as these are often preliminary research; e.g.:

1. Conference paper - research presented by researchers at academic conferences.

2. Master's thesis - research by a novice researcher, which may not be of great quality.

3. Ph.D. dissertation - a large write-up of several hundred pages of one's doctoral research; it is better to see if the author has published part of it as a journal article instead

4. Unpublished manuscript - unpublished research posted online by a researcher

3.1 Examples of academic journals

Some journals are domestic, i.e., published within a particular country, primarily by and for researchers in that part of the world. Examples of East Asian journals include English Teaching, Journal of Asia TEFL, The Journal of Studies in Language. The better journals are usually major international journals, such as:

• Psychology: Journal of Experimental Psychology, Psychonomic Bulletin, Psychology Review, Memory
• Linguistics: Journal of Linguistics, TESOL Quarterly, Journal of Memory and Language
• Business & economics: Quarterly Journal of Economics, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Financial Economics
• Natural sciences: Science, Nature, Cell, Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Nature Neuroscience
• Engineering: Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA), Robotics and Autonomous Systems, Nature Nanotechnology, IEEE Wireless Communications, Nano Research
• Literature: Poetics, New Literary History, Narrative Inquiry, Semiotica, Journal of Victorian Culture, Research in Drama Education, Journal of Biblical Literature, Russian Review, Critical Review, Modern Language Quarterly

3.2 Characteristics of academic sources

Academic sources, especially academic journals, are characterized by the following.

• Authors who are academic experts – professors, researchers, and graduate students
• Specialized contents, style, and language, which requiring at least some basic familiarity with the field, terminology, and concepts
• Professional or technical tone and style
• Plain text format, with few or no graphics other than data graphs or technical illustrations
• Reporting original research by the authors
• Sources are always cited in the text and usually at the end of each paper
• Very little or no advertising
• Some type of filter or quality control for the contents, i.e., peer review; if a researcher wants to publish a paper, it has to be screened and approved by reviewers and/or editors, who are also experts.

3.3 Finding academic sources

The best place to search for academic sources is Google Scholar.</column>

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<column name="old_id">837</column> <column name="old_text"> Beginning college students may be unclear about the types of materials that they can refer to in papers, so it is necessary to provide an overview of different types of sources, and why some are preferred, possibly acceptable, or not suitable for college papers (e.g., research papers and essays). These generally fall into the category of general, popular sources, which are usually not suitable for college papers (but with exceptions), and academic papers. However, some better quality, higher level general sources might be okay, especially for first-year and second-year college papers. These will be referred to as "quasi-academic" sources here.

• Academic sources: Written by academic experts on the topic, for others in their academic, scholarly, or research community, or at least for those with some academic knowledge of the field.
• Quasi-academic sources: Written by academic experts or otherwise trained professionals, and written for educated non-experts.
• Non-academic or general sources: Written probably by non-experts on the topic, for a general audience.

See also: Academic versus non-academic writing

4 Popular or general sources

The following have little or no quality control, expertise, or consistency in quality, in terms of the writers and producers of these contents, and would not be suitable for citing in college papers (but see below for exceptions).

1. Popular periodicals - magazines and newspapers written for a very general audience. Examples would include The Guardian, Seattle Times, Sports Illustrated, Vogue, Entertainment Weekly, Readers Digest

2. Popular books, i.e., non-fiction books written for a very general audience, and/or by authors who are not academic experts on their topic, and generally do not have references for their information. Examples include many popular self-help books, textbooks, and most books found in bookstores.

3. Dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other common reference works (including Wikipedia). The information in these works may be common knowledge or too mundane and general for an academic audience; or those producing the contents may not be qualified experts in the particular topic referenced, or the quality may be inconsistent.

4. Textbooks. Books written primarily as high school or college textbooks may not have suitable depth or expertise; they might contain bias or errors; and the information is generally common knowledge, at least in the particular field. For example, an introductory physics textbook would contain information that is not really new to other physicists.

5. Popular media sources. For example: TV shows, movies, blogs, popular music, Youtube videos, Facebook posts.

6. Works of fiction, e.g., novels.

4.1 Exceptions

There are some logical exceptions to this general guideline of not using popular sources, for example:

• In literature classes, it is common to cite fictional works (novels, poems, and such).
• In humanities courses, poplar media sources are often cited as examples of how literary works have been interpreted or adapted in film or TV; or as examples of how media and culture influence each other; or as examples of video techniques.
• In business courses, it is more common to cite popular periodicals (especially news sources) and popular books related to business, even in more advanced college courses.

5 Quasi-academic sources

The following are not academic sources, but represent higher quality contents among the world of popular sources. It is not unusual for such sources to be cited in first-year or second year college papers, or in certain fields like business, literature studies, or media studies. These sources are written by academic experts, or at least by people with some degree of expertise and professional knowledge in their fields, and are written at a college level.

1. Popular books by academic experts. These are written for readers who are not experts, but are educated enough to understand the level of writing; these are generally written at a college reading level. Examples include Stephen Pinker's The Language Instinct, Deborah Tannen's books on gender and communication issues in relationships or in workplaces like You Just Don't Understand and Talking from 9 to 5.

2. Higher level popular periodicals. These are written by people with some degree of expertise and professional skill in their fields, and are written at a college level. Examples include:

(a) Magazines like The Economist, Scientific American, National Geographic, Forbes, Business Week

(b) Top newspapers like The New York Times, Wall Street Journal

Less common types include:

1. Trade journals / publications. These are written for people working in a particular profession. The writers have at least some degree of academic or professional expertise, but the articles generally focus on practical issues of those in the profession. The articles are short, and may be a blend of personal, practical, and some research that may be cited. A good example is Chronicle of Higher Education for those working in higher education, as well as others for those in teaching professions. Others include Food Technology, Landscape Architecture.

2. An occasional academic lecture video by a professor may be found on sites like Youtube.

While these source types are mainly cited in freshman and sophomore papers, in some fields, it is also common to cite such sources in papers at the junior and senior levels; e.g., in some humanities and business classes, one may cite popular periodicals (especially news sources) and popular books related to business, media or fine arts, even in more advanced college courses.

6 Academic sources

These are written by academic experts, and these usually report original research by the authors. They are written for an audience of experts in the field (or at those with enough academic knowledge to understand them). The most common include academic research journals, monographs, and less often, edited volumes. Students will start to read some of these in their junior or senior level classes, and will use them in writing papers in such courses. Graduate students and professors read and use such materials all the time.

1. Academic journal. Short journal articles (e.g., 10-30 pages) report new, original research by the authors.

2. Monograph. This is an academic book on a specific research topic, and often consists of the author's original research on the topic, as well as a summary of current research.

3. Edited volume. This is an anthology of shorter, separate research papers by different authors on a research topic, published as a one-time book-style collection. This is overseen by an editor. For example, Tannen's Framing in Discourse is edited by Tannen, and contains various papers by Tannen and other researchers about the linguistic structures of conversations.

These kinds of sources have a process of vetting or quality control. Journal articles, for example, have a peer review process to filter out lesser quality articles. A researcher wanting to publish a paper submits it to the journal editor, who sends it to three expert reviewers (usually professors who are experts in the particular topic). The reviewers give anonymous feedback to the authors and decide to (1) accept it, (2) accept it after having the author make changes, or (3) reject it if it is not suitable or of good quality for the journal.

Other academic sources may not be so good for college students. Students may not have the expertise to understand these, or to discern whether they contain good research or reliable information, as these are often preliminary research; e.g.:

1. Conference paper - research presented by researchers at academic conferences.

2. Master's thesis - research by a novice researcher, which may not be of great quality.

3. Ph.D. dissertation - a large write-up of several hundred pages of one's doctoral research; it is better to see if the author has published part of it as a journal article instead

4. Unpublished manuscript - unpublished research posted online by a researcher

6.1 Examples of academic journals

Some journals are domestic, i.e., published within a particular country, primarily by and for researchers in that part of the world. Examples of East Asian journals include English Teaching, Journal of Asia TEFL, The Journal of Studies in Language. The better journals are usually major international journals, such as:

• Psychology: Journal of Experimental Psychology, Psychonomic Bulletin, Psychology Review, Memory
• Linguistics: Journal of Linguistics, TESOL Quarterly, Journal of Memory and Language
• Business & economics: Quarterly Journal of Economics, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Financial Economics
• Natural sciences: Science, Nature, Cell, Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Nature Neuroscience
• Engineering: Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA), Robotics and Autonomous Systems, Nature Nanotechnology, IEEE Wireless Communications, Nano Research
• Literature: Poetics, New Literary History, Narrative Inquiry, Semiotica, Journal of Victorian Culture, Research in Drama Education, Journal of Biblical Literature, Russian Review, Critical Review, Modern Language Quarterly

6.2 Characteristics of academic sources

Academic sources, especially academic journals, are characterized by the following.

• Authors who are academic experts – professors, researchers, and graduate students
• Specialized contents, style, and language, which requiring at least some basic familiarity with the field, terminology, and concepts
• Professional or technical tone and style
• Plain text format, with few or no graphics other than data graphs or technical illustrations
• Reporting original research by the authors
• Sources are always cited in the text and usually at the end of each paper
• Very little or no advertising
• Some type of filter or quality control for the contents, i.e., peer review; if a researcher wants to publish a paper, it has to be screened and approved by reviewers and/or editors, who are also experts.

6.3 Finding academic sources

The best place to search for academic sources is Google Scholar.