Difference between revisions of "Connectors (transitionals)"
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* this instant, as a matter of fact, as mentioned previously, last but not least, that is to say, in other words, to put it mildly, to repeat | * this instant, as a matter of fact, as mentioned previously, last but not least, that is to say, in other words, to put it mildly, to repeat | ||
| − | == | + | ==Genre-based categories== |
| − | + | These are semantic-pragmatic categories from more traditional genre-based approaches to writing instruction, based particularly on the genres or discourse forms of particular paragraph types. | |
# '''Time and sequence:''' ''and, then'' | # '''Time and sequence:''' ''and, then'' | ||
# '''Addition:''' ''and, also, too'' | # '''Addition:''' ''and, also, too'' | ||
Revision as of 05:20, 1 September 2016
Discourse connectors (overview)
Discourse connectors, also known as connectives or transitionals, are words that connect phrases, clauses, sentences, and ideas, such as but, and, so, then, although and numerous others. They are crucial for establishing coherence, or logical flow of sentences, clauses, and ideas, in written or spoken discourse. This overview page presents different linguistic categories of connectors. Other pages (forthcoming) will provide detailed lists of connectors, discussion of pedagogy, and problems of ESL/EFL students with English connectors. See also Swales & Feak (2004)[1].
Connectors include most conjunctions, as well as conjunctive adverbs and other expressions that have been pressed into service as connectors. Most of these connectors are also called discourse markers, which refers to those that do not crucially affect the truth value of the clause or sentence. In other words, conjunctions like if, whether, unless, before would be excluded from the category of discourse markers, as they negative or significantly limit the truth value of their clauses.
Discourse particles are differentiated as a separate category, due to their unique grammatical and pragmatic features; these include terms such as like, well, oh, I mean, etc.
See below for pedagogical handouts for teachers and students.
Contents
1 Syntactic categories
Connectors can be divided into more traditional grammatical categories as follows. For more on the difference in usage between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, see the section on pragmatics below.
1.1 Coordinating conjunctions
These coordinate two clauses or verb phrases, or smaller units, such as two nouns (e.g., cat and mouse), adjectives (e.g., good and bad), or other word types, e.g.:
- and, or, but, yet, just as, such as, also, both...and, either...or
The paired conjunctions like both...and and either...or are traditionally known as correlatives.
1.2 Subordinating conjunctions
These subordinate a dependent clause to a main clause, and are distinguished from subordinators that are not connectors in the normal sense (like relative pronouns and complementizer particles such as that).
- after, before, although, as, while, whereas, since, because
1.3 Conjunctive adverbs
These are adverbs that have taken on the function of conjoining clauses, e.g.:
- however, furthermore, therefore, thus
1.4 Sentence adverbs
These adverbs, also known as sentential adverbs, express the speaker's assessment of the whole sentence, and are similar to (if not slightly overlapping with) the conjunctive adverbs. They are set apart from the rest of the sentence with a comma in writing, or a slight intonational rise or juncture in speaking.
- Naturally, Incidentally, Thankfully, Regrettably, Fortunately, Apparently, Especially
1.5 Emphatic adverbs
These emphasize the particular word that they modify.
- Even, only, merely, especially, particularly
The adverb especially is also used as a sentence adverb at the beginning of the sentence. However, if it modifies the whole sentence as a sentence adverb, this is colloquial or informal style, and is dispreferred in academic writing. In formal writing, it can occur sentence-initially only if it modifies a following adjective or other word. That is, especially sentence-initially is fine in formal style if used only as an emphatic adverb, not as a sentence adverb. If it is used as an emphatic sentence adverb, this interrupts the natural flow of academic prose, as it emphasizes and calls attention to the whole clause (like raising one's voice or typing in all capital letters - excessive emphasis on an entire clause). Instead, moving it to only modify a single word in the sentence, or replacing it with the less emphatic particularly / in particular would be better options.
- The information is various from the exchange rate and stock prices and to the current of national economy. Especially, economic predictions are useful for planning long-term economic policy for several reasons. (colloquial)
- ... Economic predictions are especially useful for planning long-term economic policy for several reasons. (better academic style; especially is only an emphatic adverb, modifying only useful)
- ... In particular, economic predictions are useful for planning long-term economic policy for several reasons. (also better for academic style)
1.6 Prepositions
Prepositions can serve as transitionals, particularly prepositional phrases, compound prepositions, and phrases derived from participle plus preposition.
1. Compound prepositions
- because of, due to, except for
2. Participle plus preposition
- based on, according to, depending on
3. Prepositional phrase
- in light of, as a consequence of, in addition to
1.7 Other phrases
Other multi-word expressions have come to be used as transitionals, e.g.,
- this instant, as a matter of fact, as mentioned previously, last but not least, that is to say, in other words, to put it mildly, to repeat
2 Genre-based categories
These are semantic-pragmatic categories from more traditional genre-based approaches to writing instruction, based particularly on the genres or discourse forms of particular paragraph types.
- Time and sequence: and, then
- Addition: and, also, too
- Repetition, emphasis: as mentioned, the aforementioned, that is, that is to say, to repeat
- Exception: other than, except for
- Example: e.g., for example, like, as, for instance
- Reason, purpose: because, since, in order to
- Result: so, thus, as a result, hence
- Condition: in case, if, whether, in case (of)
- Concession (weaker contrast) but, yet, although, while
- Contrast: but, however, on the other hand, whereas
- Comparison: as, just as, likewise, in like manner, similarly
- Summary: in conclusion, in sum, overall
- Enumeratives: first, second, third
3 Pragmatic categories
3.1 Topical adverbs
Some adverbials function like sentence adverbs, but also serve topic transitional functions, signalling a shift or focusing in topic. Topical adverbs (this is my own name for them – this is not a standard term) are somewhat similar to sentence adverbs, except that they function to identify or qualify the topic of the coming clause. This adverb is similar to a normal adverb within a sentence, but moved to the beginning to make the topic more explicit, to emphasize the speaker's point, to give it more prominence, to shift the topic to a new but somewhat related topic, or to avoid too many other adverbs inside the sentence.
- Economically, this would be infeasible to implement while the markets are too unstable. (cf. "This would be economically infeasible to implement")
- Politically, it would be unwise for the senator to suddenly propose such an outrageously expensive funding project at an economically depressed time as this.
Many words could be used like this, such as these, and many others, such as adverbs related to specific topics or fields of study:
- scientifically, mathematically, artistically, financially, intellectually, philosophically, computationally, psychologically, economically, politically, intellectually, biologically, environmentally, presently, evolutionarily, emotionally
3.2 Topic shift markers
Some words are used to manage shifts to new topics, or shifting back to previously mentioned topics (reshifts). In colloquial English and narratives, now can be used for new topics or reshifts; anyway can be used colloquially for reshifts. In various kinds of contexts, as to, as for, as regards, regarding, etc. can be used for reshifts, but in academic writing these are less common; one should be careful not to overuse these to avoid sounding stylistically too mechanical, artificial, colloquial, or formulaic.
- Now, as I was saying...
- As for the unresolved matter of late orders, we've decided to consult with the home office.
- As regards your proposal, we currently cannot undertake such a complex project.
3.3 Presentational there is/are
Sentences beginning with there is or there are function to present or introduce new topics (e.g., sentence subjects) to the discussion.
- There's a unicorn in my garden!
- There's not much that can be done about this problem.
This is more common in informal writing or conversation. In academic writing, there is/are is less commonly used. Instead, academic writers simply start a new sentence with a full noun subject, or begin a new paragraph for a more significant topic shift.
- The situation seems serious, but unfortunately, not much can be done about this problem at this time.
3.4 Foregrounding and backgrounding
The main difference between coordinating conjunctions versus subordinating conjunctions, or between main clauses and dependent clauses, aside from their syntax, has to do with information flow, namely, foregrounding and backgrounding.
Joining two clauses (or simply introducing the second clause) with coordinating conjunctions put both phrases in the foreground of the flow. On the other hand, subordinating conjunctions put less emphasis on, or draw less cognitive attention to one phrase, that is, they background it. Consider the following pairs.
- 1a. I ran the simulation, and then the problem became apparent.
- 1b. After I ran the simulation, the problem became apparent.
- 2a. We ran 40 subjects in the experiment, but it yielded no conclusive results.
- 2b. Although we ran 40 subjects in the experiment, it yielded no conclusive results.
- 3a. Gender turned out to have a significant effect in past studies, so it was entered as a control variable.
- 3b. Because gender turned out to have a significant effect in past studies, it was entered as a control variable.
When we read the (b) examples, the dependent clauses are read more quickly and receive less cognitive attention and processing than their main clause counterparts in the (a) examples. This contributes to a smoother flow in the writing and information flow. Writers can manipulate this by using some connectives to put more focus or emphasis on some items, and can use other connectors to put some items in the background of readers' attention.
Coordinating conjunctions foreground both phrases, while many subordinating conjunctions background the subordinate (dependent) clauses1. That is, they draw readers' attention to the main clauses, but less attention to the subordinate clauses. Some adverbial words also work like conjunctions, and these often foreground both phrases. The more common connectors and, so, but, or actually provide relatively weak foregrounding, while many others have more specific meanings and provide stronger foregrounding.
| Foregrounding connectors | Backgrounding connectors |
| furthermore, in addition
but, however, yet |
as
although, though, while |
Dependent (subordinate, adverbial) clauses can be used with flexibility to express a particular flow and nuance. If the subordinate clause is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it can form a cohesive, organizing link between the text and/or ideas immediately before the clause and the new information that follows. On the other hand, dependent clauses at the ends of sentences provide expansion of the information in the main clause. For example,
This ability to influence public opinion and mobilize the entire nation against a particular deviant activity ... illustrates the vast power of the mass media in defining deviance and mobilizing support for strong social control. Because they need to capture the public interest, the mass media often sensationalize crime and deviance. (Thompson & Hickey, 2002, p. 183; cited in Hinkel, 2013, p. 248)[2]
In this excerpt, the sentence-initial position of the because clause connects the information in the preceding sentence to that in the main clause (e.g., public opinion—public interest, the mass media—they, and vast power—capture). Specifically, adverbial clauses at the beginning of sentences play the role of connectives and transitions between ideas and information in keeping with the-old-information-first-and-the-new-information last pattern. The following example shows how the subordinate clause (adverb clause) expands on the preceding idea in the main clause by providing further examples or support.
The annihilation of a minority may be unintentional, as when Puritans brought deadly diseases that Native Americans had no immunity to (Thompson & Hickey, 2002, p. 237; cited in Hinkel, 2013, p. 248)[2].
4 Pedagogical handouts
The following are PDFs for teachers and students
- Connectives chart: Some common transitionals
- A landscape version of the above chart
- A handout version of the above chart
- Intro to transitionals
- Coherence devices for logical flow
- Cohesive devices for connections among words, word flow, and clear wording
- Transitionals problemata: Common problems that East Asians students have with connectors / transitionals
