Paragraph styles

Look at some paragraphs in the body of a sample article or research paper, and try to identify some of the paragraph forms. Which ones do you see? Why are they used in such a paper? What kinds of expressions do you see being typically used in these paragraph types?

1. Definition

Introducing new or difficult concepts or terms; defining terms in order to establish a syllogism; establishing importance or relevance of an item; establishing a special meaning or relevance of terms as the author will use them in his/her argumentation.

2. Descriptive and narrative

Explaining events, or describing a situation, especially with the writer’s viewpoint or evaluation implied.

3. Chronology

Past background of a topic; establishing the relevance of a topic or issue.

4. Example / illustration / listing / enumerative

How things are to be; describing characteristics; strengths or weakness of an item or concept.

5. Classification / categorization

Explaining interrelationships of items as related members of a class or group.

6. Cause and effect

Explaining results or implications of an item.

7. Process

Explaining or describing an item or concept as a a logical sequence of steps, e.g., reports, experiments.

8. Contrast

Describing differences among items, ideas or theories; showing how one item or idea is superior or inferior to another; evaluating ideas or items.

9. Comparison

Describing similarities; supporting an idea by establishing similarities with already accepted ideas.

10. Analogy

Illustrating a point with an illustration that would be easier for readers to understand, and that conveys relationships among items or ideas as the writer perceives them.

11. Critique / evaluation

The writer examines ideas (or other things) to point out strengths and weaknesses, or positives and negatives, of particular ideas, theories, proposals, experiments, devices, or such. This can be done in order to argue for or against one of them, or to show the superiority of his/her own idea.

12. Deductive logic (syllogism)

This is the classical type of logical argumentation from one point to another: if X and Y are true, then Z must be true.

13. Inductive logic

Reasoning from evidence or points to a logical conclusion.

14. “Optimal / best inference” logic

Arguing for X as the best explanation or conclusion; X works better than other possible explanations, or X best satisfies certain logical requirements that make it the most acceptable option.

15. Summary

A concise overview, e.g., of the logical development of an idea.

16. Background

Explanatory background information, e.g., historical background of an issue.

17. Argumentative

Presenting claims and evidence.

18. Analytical

Logical analysis of an issue.

19. Pro and con

for and against X

20. Subjective

personal, emotional, and/or first-person point-of-view

21. Intersubjective

second person / 1st & 2nd person point-of-view

22. Observational

A description or narration of what an observer sees, possibly with analytical comments

23. Other kinds?

1 Text features

What kinds of grammatical and lexical patterns do you see in the paragraphs in your paper? Why are they used? E.g.:

• Abstract nouns
• Concrete, physical nouns
• Gerunds (-ing verbs used as nouns, e.g., swimming)
• Nouns referring to actions, activities, or events
• Descriptive noun phrases (e.g., with many adjectives, other specifiers, or post-modifiers)
• Compound noun phrases
• Post-modified nouns (nouns followed by a modifier – a prepositional phrase, a participial phrase, relative clause, etc.)
• Other complex noun phrases
• Complex or compound sentences
• Particular types of verbs
• Certain verb tenses, e.g., simple present, simple past, perfect, pluperfect (past perfect)
• Certain modal verbs (can, could, should, would … ) or quasi-modal verbs (have to, ought to, need to … )
• Participial phrases
• Connector words / conjunctions (if, thus, since, although, however ...)

2 Connectors / transitionals

Now take a look at the more commonly used connective or transitional words and expressions used in your paper (see also the page on Connectors_(transitionals). Which kinds do you see? Do they tend to occur with certain paragraph forms, paper topics, or paper sections?

Connector	Example
1. Time / sequence	and, or, afterward, soon
2. Addition	and, as, also, furthermore
3. Place, direction	there, beyond, in the forefront
4. Repetition, emphasis, restatement	as mentioned, the aforementioned, that is
5. Exception	other than, except for
6. Example	for example, specifically, thus
7. Contrast	but, though, however, in contrast
8. Comparison	just as, likewise, similarly
9. Summary / conclusion	as a result, as shown, above all, in summary
10. Reason, purpose	because (of), since, due to, with this in mind
11. Cause, effect, result	so that, because, therefore, thereupon
12. Manner, similarity	likewise, accordingly, thereby, similarly, as if
13. Conditional	if, unless, in case of, whether