Narrative techniques

Narrative techniques in films and TV are techniques and methods used by filmmakers or directors use to convey a story to the audience in the way that the director intends, according to his/her artistic vision. Many of these might also be referred to as plot devices, as they also help to develop the plot. These narrative techniques are not mutually exclusive, and filmmakers often combine them creatively to tell engaging and unique stories. The choice of narrative technique can greatly impact the viewer's experience and interpretation of a film. Here are some key narrative techniques commonly used in films and TV.

1 General narrative techniques

MacGuffin || An object appears or is referred to throughout a film, and seems to play a significant role in the plot, though the object itself is seemingly unimportant; it does not seem to have any real function itself, and its purpose or function are not fully explained. It may be introduced early on in a film, but then disappear, as it ceases to be important in much of the plot, though it might reappear toward the end. Examples include stories where characters seek a holy grail or other sacred object, but the object ceases to be important in the plot, and the plot comes to focus on something else. || The mysterious object in the briefcase in Pulp Fiction that is never explained; or the falcon statue in The Maltese Falcon.

Name	Description	Example
Backstory	Information is given to provide background explanation of a secondary character, or to tell a story that precedes a key event in the main story. This may be in the form of an extended narrative exposition by a narrator, or a separate episode.	In ‘’The Lord of the Rings’’, the narration sometimes provides information on events which took place earlier in a previous historical epoch.
Cliffhanger	An episode ends with a major problem unresolved, and the audience has to watch a future episode for the resolution.	Many TV dramas use a cliffhanger to bridge the end of one season with the beginning of the next.
Dream sequence	An actual dream, or a dream-like narrative sequence, or other surreal elements, are used to convey extra information, such as a character's psychological state, to provide a flashback, or simply to blur the line between reality and imagination.	The film ‘’Inception’’ makes frequent and masterful use of dream sequences.
Flashback	The narrative flow is interrupted, and earlier events are told or retold. This may be used to provide extra information about in important upcoming plot event, or to emphasize the importance of a past event to the plot.	The film ‘’Citizen Kane’’ used flashbacks so that characters could relive or retell their past.
Flash forward	Flash forwards partially reveal future events (real, potential, or imagined events) to the viewers before the events actually occur in the main story. These might be used to build curiosity or anticipation before the event is shown in full detail.	Some sequences in later seasons of the TV series ‘’Lost’’ were flash forwards. Mr. Scrooge’s visions of the future in ‘’A Christmas Carol’’ could be considered flash forwards.
Foreshadowing	Implicit yet intentional efforts of an author to suggest events that have yet to take place in the process of narration. See also repetitive designation and Chekhov's gun	A narration might begin with a male character who has to break up a schoolyard fight among some boys who are vying for the attention of a girl, which was introduced to foreshadow the events leading to a dinner time squabble between the character and his twin brother over a woman, whom both are courting at the same time.
Framing device, or narrative framing	A story is told within a story. The first or outer story provides a context, some commentary on the story, and a rationale for the story.	Inthe Arabian Nights, the new queen Scheherazade tells the 1001 stories to the King, which serves as a framing device. In Stephen King's The Wind Through the Keyhole, the protagonist tells his companions a story from his past, and in this story he tells another story.
In Medias Res	This Latin phrase means "in the middle of things." The story starts at a point within the action, possibly right before or during a critical event. Flashbacks or other non-linear narrative techniques might be used to fill in the preceding events or backstory.	A few Dr Who episodes by Steven Moffat started in the middle of a chase scene, fight scene, or other action scene.
Long take, one-shot, or continuous shot	A long take is an extended, uninterrupted moving camera shot that can last for several minutes. This can create a sense of realism, immersion in the action, or tension.	The opening shot of Orson Welles' "Touch of Evil"
Montage	Multiple events or times are shown in quick succession, by means of rapid editing of multiple shots or scenes to condense time or convey information quickly. This can show the passage of time, character development, or the completion of a task.	In fight movies like Rocky, the athlete undergoes a series of intense training sessions, and the seriousness and intensity of the training is emphasized with a montage and theme music.
Narrative hook	A story opening that "hooks" or grabs and holds readers' attention so they will keep reading	Any non-fiction book is often introduced with an interesting factoid.
Parallel editing or cross-cutting	This technique alternates between two or more separate storylines or locations, creating tension and drawing connections between them.	Some horror movies or psychological dramas may cross-cut between the perspective of the killer and the victim, such as in the shower scene in the Hitchcock film Psycho.
Parallel universe, or alternate reality	In science fiction and fantasy genres, characters may enter parallel universes or alternate realities, which can make for unique narrative possibilities.	"Stranger Things" explores this concept, and some Star Trek episodes made use of an alternative universe with characters who were evil versions of the main universe characters.
Plot voucher	An object given to a character (usually to the protagonist) before s/he faces an obstacle, and s/he must then use the object to overcome the obstacle.	A character is given an object, which s/he later uses to stop a bullet; or a character is given an object that has magical properties, which s/he must later use to overcome a challenge.
Plot twist	An unexpected change occurs in the direction or expected outcome of the plot.	An early example is the Arabian Nights tale "The Three Apples". A locked chest found by a fisherman contains a dead body, and two different men claim to be the murderer, which turns out to be the investigator's own slave.
Poetic justice	Virtue ultimately rewarded, or vice punished, by an ironic twist of fate related to the character's own conduct	In Dante's Inferno, each form of suffering is a symbolic punishment for a particular sin. In the Roadrunner cartoons, the Coyote sets up contraptions to catch the Road Runner, but they backfire on the Coyote.
Predestination paradox	Time travel paradox where a time traveler is caught in a loop of events that "predestines" them to travel back in time	In Doctor Who, the Doctor sometimes finds that he has to travel back in time because of something his future character has done.
Red herring	Clues or elements are introduced to deliberately mislead viewers and divert their attention from the plot direction and actual events to come, so that those events are unexpected. Mystery and suspense genres often use red herrings.	For example, in mystery fiction, an innocent person might be treated as highly suspicious through emphasis or descriptive techniques to divert attention from the true guilty person.
Self-fulfilling prophecy	A prediction that, by being made or by being believed, makes itself come true.	In Harry Potter, Lord Voldemort heard a prophecy that a boy born at a certain time would be made marked as his equal. Lord Voldemort thus sought out Harry Potter (thinking he was the boy) and tried to kill him. His efforts to kill him and curse him had a reverse effect, and gave Harry unique abilities that made him his equal.
Silent film techniques / style	Techniques like intertitles (blank screens with text to provide explanation about a scene or its context), visual storytelling, and exaggerated physical acting were typical aspects of old silent films. They might occasionally be used in modern films for artistic effect.	A few films like The Artist have used silent film style, and occasionally, a comedy film might briefly use such techniques for comedic effect.
Ticking time bomb scenario	The threat of an impending disaster looms, for example, in action films and thrillers.	In the film Speed, the protagonist has to stop a bomb from exploding in a speeding bus.
Unreliable Narrator	The narrator of the story turns out not to be accurate or sincere, or deliberately introduces a bias in their narration to mislead the audience, for example, by hiding or minimizing events, characters, or motivations.	The narrator of the film ‘American Psycho’ turns out to be an unreliable narrator, as we realize that some of the events did not happen the way he described.

2 Plot twists

An unexpected change in the sequence of events that affect the direction and outcome of the plot, especially if it comes toward the end, rising action or climax of the film, is a plot twist or surprise ending. Sometimes these may be foreshadowed, but not in an overly obvious way. The following are types of plot twists, or narrative techniques that can be used for plot twists.

Anagnorisis (self-discover)

The protagonist suddenly recognizes his/her true identity, or the true identify of another character. A classic example occurs in the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, when Oedipus realizes his true identity and the identity of his mother and father.

Flashback

A flashback might be used as a reveal for the sake of a plot twist, for example, to reveal the true identity of a character, or the true nature of events that the protagonist did not fully understand.

Cliffhanger

The main character(s) is/are in a difficult situation or dilemma, or face a shocking revelation at the end of an episode. The ending is not resolved, and audiences must watch the next episode or film. This is often used in serialized fiction like TV dramas, and occasionally in films to bridge one film to the following sequel.

Unreliable narrator

A narrator who is the main character of the story narrates the story from his/her point of view. But near the end of the story, the audience realizes that the narrator has lied about, made up, exaggerated, or fabricated the story. This technique is often used within crime dramas, psychological dramas, and noir films. Examples include films like The Usual Suspects, the Terry Gilliam film Brazil, the film adaptation of Fight Club (and the original novel), and the psychological thriller American Psycho.

Peripeteia (reversal of fortunes)

The protagonist experiences a sudden reversal of fortune, whether for good or bad. It usually emerges naturally from the character's circumstances, or otherwise arises logically within the story line. In the classic TV series The Twilight Zone this was not uncommon, and most famously in the episode "Time Enough at Last" where the main character is robbed of all his hope by a simple but tragic accident with his eyeglasses.

Deus ex machina

This Latin term meaning "god from the machine" refers to an unexpected, artificial and highly unlikely event (or character or narrative device) that suddenly occurs to resolve a difficult situation. In Ancient Greek theater, the "deus ex machina" was the persona of a Greek god who was physically introduced onto the stage by means of a crane, after which the god solves a seemingly unsolvable problem. It might describe a more plausible but highly unlikely ending, like how a human virus killed off the alien invaders in War of the Worlds. But today this is usually used to negatively describe a plot twist or resolution that seems fake, contrived, or highly implausible, as in Avengers: Endgame.

Red herring

False clues or information is provided to mislead the audience, for example, about the identity of a killer in a crime mystery. Or certain facts and details are emphasized to mislead the audience members. The main characters in the story might also be mislead as well. Typical examples include novels by Agatha Christie, such as Murder on the Orient Express.

False protagonist

The story starts with a main character, but the person is then killed off, or suddenly leaves the story for good. For exmaple, the film Psycho starts with a female protagonist, who is killed off before the halfway point of the film. Similarly, in the horror film Scream the main character, played by Drew Barrymore, is killed off in the first fifteen minutes (which shocked audiences, especially since the film was promoted in a way that emphasized Barrymore as a main character).

3 See also

Other pages

1. Academic writing genres on English Wiki
2. List of writing genres at Wikipedia
3. Humor genres
4. Narrative techniques
5. Music genres
6. Paragraph styles
7. Plot elements
8. Trope