MLA guide

MLA guide

The MLA citation and referencing system (from the Modern Language Association) is used internationally for academic writing in the humanities, particularly in literature and media studies. The APA guide contains specifications for in-text source citations and end references (which are called works cited). In-text citations follow an author-page parenthetical style, in that sources are cited in-text by citing author names and page numbers, or secondarily, other information.

1 Overview

The MLA system puts more emphasis on the author and location of information within the source in the in-text citations, and also in the works cited, in that the author and source title are the first two elements of each end reference, with dates near the end, in contrast to systems like the [APA guide | APA], which emphasize author and date. In the MLA, dates are less important, while authors, source, and the locus of information in a source are more relevant to the kind of humanities research for which MLA is designed. This is because in such fields, it is common to cite older sources, sources with multiple dates due to translation, undated sources, media materials, and electronic sources.

The MLA has undergone multiple significant revisions in the past decade. Currently, the 8th edition of the MLA is commonly used, which was published in 2016. Previous versions used a parenthetical author-date system for in-text citations, which changed to an author-page system in the 7th edition. The 8th edition revamped the system with a clear framework that offers flexibility for many kinds of sources. The MLA also specifies alternate citation and referencing via footnotes or endnotes, which is a more informal version of the formal in-text citation and works cited system. Additionally, the MLA also provides specifications for paper format or layout (particularly for course papers, theses and dissertations, and paper drafts submitted to journals).

2 In-text citations

Within the body of a paper or text, the in-text citation is a brief identifier for the source that is used. Works are cited within the text of a paper with author name(s) and page numbers in parentheses, or the author name(s) stated directly in the sentence with pages in parentheses. Usually only surnames (family names or last names) are given (but see below for more complex cases). If no author name is available, the title or a shortened form of the title can be given instead, and if no page number is available, other data may be provided instead, or the page numbers can be omitted if they are not relevant.

• At least one recent text by Smith (45) has addressed this issue …
• At least one recent text (Smith 45) has addressed this issue …
• A recent survey (Nevalainen and Traugott) notes that ...
• A recent survey by Nevalainen and Traugott notes that ...

The in-text citation goes inside the sentence, and if it comes at the end, it still is placed before final punctuation (inside a final period, that is, the period comes after the closing parenthesis of the citation). If the author's name is part of the sentence, the page number can appear after the author name or at the end of the sentence.

Conversation analysis began as an attempt to study how speakers organize talk and thereby organize their social interaction (Schlegloff 102).

As Schlegloff (102) described the paradigm, conversation analysis began as an attempt to study how speakers organize talk and thereby organize their social interaction.

As Schlegloff described the paradigm, conversation analysis began as an attempt to study how speakers organize talk and thereby organize their social interaction (102).

2.1 Author details

Multiple citations

For citing multiple sources together, each entry is separated by a semi-colon, and they are ordered alphabetically according to the first author.

The phenomenon has been characterized variously as a social malady, and as a symptom of a deeper problem (Jones 46; Smith 98).

The methodology of conversation analysis was pioneered by applied linguists, including the transcription and notation system, and the basic categories and terminology for types of initiation, turn taking, and repair (Sacks et al. 1974; Schlegloff 1973).

Multiple author works

For two authors, both authors' surnames are provided, either in the sentence or in the parenthetical citation. Ampersands (&) are not used in MLA in parenthetical citations.

His exposition has been described as simultaneously mind-bending and heretical, yet sublimely orthodox (Smith 325; Treu 973).

One of the earliest linguistic studies of conversational closings by Schlegloff and Sacks explored the ambiguities of demarcating such interchanges.

One of the earliest linguistic studies of conversational closings (Schlegloff and Sacks) explored the ambiguities of demarcating such interchanges.

For works with three or more authors, the citation is abbreviated by citing only the first author followed by et al. (Latin et alia = "and others"). The full list of names is provided in the works cited.

The methodology of conversation analysis was pioneered by applied linguists, including the transcription and notation system, and the basic categories and terminology for types of initiation, turn taking, and repair (Sacks et al. 1974; Schlegloff 1973).

Multiple works by the same author

The titles of the works are shorted as needed and included in the parenthetical citation, e.g., ...Author ("Title" 10)... or ... (Author, "Title" 10). Books and other stand-alone or independent works are italicized as they normally would be, and articles and other shorter works appear in quotes. Normal rules of capitalization apply, i.e., title case (see below), where all major or longer words are capitalized.

While Smith has categorized Kierkegaard's different levels of belief into different levels or qualitative types ("Kierkegaard's Differing Categories" 883), in her more recent work she has explored the connection between his existential and religious belief (Smith, "Reconciling Existential Belief" 256).

Authors with same names

Sources by different authors with the same surnames can be distinguished with initialized first names.

While some view Johnson's presidency in a rather negative light (A. Lee 13), others emphasize the pragmatic approach he took to certain problems (C. Lee 89).

2.2 Other source types

Classic works with multiple editions

Some classic works may exist in different editions, with varying subdivisions. To clarify, after the page number and a semi-colon in the in-text citation, further identifying information can be provided to specify a particular volume (vol.), book (bk.), part (pt.), chapter (ch.), section (sec.), or paragraph (par.). This is further clarified with specific information for the particular edition used in the works cited section.

Such ethical principles were described as categorical imperatives (Kant 204; pt. 2).

Multi-volume works

A volume number and colon precedes the page number.

Augustine describes his mystical experience in relatively logical terms that show a relatively restrained emotionality (1: 5-12).

Religious texts

The particular version of the Bible or other text is indicated the first time it is cited, but this can be omitted in subsequent citations. Books of the Bible are abbreviated.

The writer of the book used awkward Greek, literally, "the was," translated as “who was" in the famous phrase, "who was and who is who is to come"he who was" (New Revised Standard Version, Rev. 1:8), while such formulations are avoided in other books ascribed to the same writer, such as the famous "In the beginning" passage (Jn. 1).

Audiovisual media materials

For media materials with a runtime, such as films, videos, podcasts, and TV shows, an exact time reference or time range can be provided instead of page numbers, in hour:minute:seconds format, e.g., (00:04:30-00:06:45).

Online, electronic, and media materials

The first relevant item is provided from the MLA works cited template is provided. For online sources, it is not necessary to provide paragraph, page or section numbers in the in-text citation. URLs are not needed, but a domain suffix is included if needed, e.g., CNN.com, Economist.com. Care must be used to make sure the website or material is credible and worth citing in an academic paper.

• Template: (Author / Contributor name, Article title, Website name, Film name)

Multiple sources by the same author (or producer or other contributor) can be distinguished with a title or shortened title in quotation marks.

While a significant decline in story-telling technique was apparent in the first prequel (Lucas, "Phantom Menace"), this became painfully serious by the conclusion of the prequel trilogy (Lucas, "Revenge of the Sith").

Secondary citation

It may be necessary sometimes to cite a source that you do not have direct access to, but it is cited in another source. When possible, the original source should be found and consulted, but if it is unavailable, the "qtd. in" is used to cite the source that you actually found it in.

An older study found that 80% of stressed words in a corpus were nouns, followed by 12% verbs, and 8% other word classes (Smith, qtd. in Jones 404).

An older study by Smith found that 80% of stressed words in a corpus were nouns, followed by 12% verbs, and 8% other word classes (qtd. in Jones 404).

For verbs used in paraphrasing, see the page on reporting verbs (introduction) and the detailed listing on the page for reporting verbs.

2.3 Quotations

A short quotation contains fewer than four lines of text or three lines of verse, and it is included directly in the paragraph. Short quotations are enclosed in quotation marks, with an author and specific page citation, or line numbers for verses. Lines of verse are separated by slash marks (/) with a space before and after the slash mark.

The guide takes a unique view of cosmology with this bold statement: "In the beginning the Universe was created. This has made a lot of people very angry and has been widely regarded as a bad move" (Adams 5).

Moore described the character in his song rather movingly: "Long ago, in another galaxy / There lived a gloomy robot / His name was Marvin" (1-3).

Long quotations (more than four lines of text or three lines of verse) are placed in a separate block paragraph without quotation marks. The line breaks and formatting of poetry and verse are retained as much as possible. The in-text citation in block paragraphs comes after the closing punctuation. The entire block paragraph is indented 1.25 cm (0.5 inches) from the left margin. In proper MLA format, the block quotation is double-spaced like the main text (especially for a course paper, thesis, dissertation, or journal manuscript), though printed journals, periodicals and books may use single-spacing format for everything.

The short story masterfully captures the mental anguish of our "antagonist" fiend:    And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not? Almighty God! --no, no! They heard! --they suspected! --they knew! --they were making a mockery of my horror!-this I thought, and this I think. But anything was better than this agony! Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those hypocritical smiles no longer! I felt that I must scream or die! and now --again! --hark! louder! louder! louder! louder! "Villains!" I shrieked, "dissemble no more! I admit the deed! --tear up the planks! here, here! --It is the beating of his hideous heart!" (Poe 98)

One of the most iconic poem openings comes from the hand of Poe: Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore—     While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. “’Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door—             Only this and nothing more.” (202)

In a quotation, necessary explanations or additions of your own inside the quotation can be included in square brackets, and words that you have omitted are indicated with an ellipsis ( . . . ), with each period preceded and followed by a space. If omitting a line from a poem, the ellipsis dots should extend to the complete line of a poem.

The suspense builds as the killer grows anxious: "... still the men [the investigators] chatted pleasantly, and smiled . . . they were making a mockery of my horror" (Poe 98).

3 Works Cited

The MLA 8th edition specifies a general template, which offers the flexibility for citing many kinds of sources.