Collocations

Collocations are typical word combinations, that is, words that usually go together in commonly used expressions in normal daily use. More specifically, a collocation is set of words or terms that occur together commonly, and much more often than what would be expected by chance. Its meaning is compositional, that is, the meaning is understood from the words that comprise it. Collocations differ from idioms, in that the meaning of an idiom cannot be inferred from its parts, and may be seemingly unrelated (e.g., kick the bucket = to die). Several collocation patterns exist, many of which are defined by grammatical relations, such as common adjective + noun expressions, verb + preposition combinations, and phrasal verb expressions. Knowledge of collocations can pose a challenge for those learning a language, as a command of common collocations is necessary for proficient use of the language and communicative competence. Even grammatically correct sentences will appear awkward or will fail to communication if collocational preferences or patterns are violated.

1 Overview

The common English collocation patterns include these types.

Verb + Noun	inflict a wound, withdraw an offer , make a lot of money, make a lot of friends, ease tension, override a veto
Adjective + Noun	a crushing defeat, a rough estimate
Noun + Verb	a bee buzzes, a bomb explodes
Noun 1 + Noun 2	a flock of sheep, a pack of dogs salt and pepper; apples and oranges
Adverb + Adjective	deeply absorbed, closely acquainted, hopelessly addicted
Verb + Adverb	appreciate sincerely, apologize humbly
Noun + Prep.	apathy toward, influence on
X + Comp.	an agreement that, recommend that

‘Comp.’ = complement clause (e.g., a that-clause).

Particular collocation difficulties for ESL include the following.

1. Light verbs
   Light verbs are common, high-frequency verbs that have rather general meanings, e.g.: be, have, come, go, get, take, set, do, make. They are often used in a number of idioms and set expressions, e.g.,
   • take a chance, take liberties with the results, run aground, do/run an experiment, go swimming, take notice, set an example, make an effort, have a go at it, get over it
2. Prepositions and phrasal verbs, which are often metaphorical
   • working (in) → working at the university / at IBM [‘in’ is possible in certain contexts, but ‘at’ is generally preferred for work place locations; ‘work in’ is for more specific locations, such as ‘working in a tent’ or ‘working in a rock band’]
   • The environment has cut down diminished our motivation, especially when team members have been split apart up. [incorrect phrasal verbs]
3. Prep. combinations: [1] Verb + Prep.; [2] Adj. + Prep.; and [3] Noun + Prep; these can involve metaphorical uses of prepositions.
   • is different than → different from
   • influence to X→ an influence on X
   • apply X into Y→ apply X to Y
   • ask to X→ ask X
4. Noun + Prep. combinations, and their Verb counterparts with no prepositions.
   • X has an influence on Y cf. X influences on Y
   • a discussion about Xcf.to discuss about X

2 Verb + Preposition collocations

The following is a partial and incomplete list of common collocation errors that Asian ESL students tend to make in English. The expressions with asterisks [*] are awkward or incorrect terms used by ESL learners.

# Absorbed in (=very much interested) [*at]	The professor was so absorbed in his work that he neglected his social life.
# Accused of [*for] cf. charge with	She accused the man of stealing. The man was charged with murder.
# Accustomed to [*with] cf. used to	I’m accustomed to hot weather. He is used to the heat.
# Afraid of [*from]	Laura is afraid of the dog.
# Aim at [*on / against] At denotes direction toward; because at indicates direction or movement toward something, it means the object is not directly or fully affected, e.g.: throw at, shout at, fire at, shoot at; shoot at. When the verb can take a direct object or at, the object in the Verb + DO construction is fully affected by the action, while Verb + at indicates an object that is not fully affected, e.g., shot a goose cf. shot at a goose.	She aimed at the target.
# All of X (generic noun) [all *of X, all X, all of the X]; ‘all of the X’ has a more specific nuance – the speaker has particular items in mind	All of computers must be turned off when you leave the office. (generic statement) All of the computers must be turned off when you leave the office.
# Anxious (troubled) about [*for] Anxious for = wishing very much	They are anxious about his health. Parents are anxious for their children’s success.
# Angry with / at [*against] For persons, with is somewhat more common. We get angry with/at a person but angry at a thing. Also annoyed with, vexed with, indignant with.	The teacher was angry with / at him. He was angry at the weather.
# Arrived at [*to] Use arrive in with countries and large cities.	We arrived at the village at night. Mr. Smith arrived in London.
# Ashamed of [*from] ‘ashamed of’ ≠ ‘shy’ ‘ashamed’ = feeling shame or guilt ‘shy’ = feeling nervous with someone	He is now ashamed of his conduct ?I’m ashamed of / shamed of my teacher → I’m shy toward my teacher.
# Believe in [*to] ‘to believe in’ = to have faith in. ‘to believe’ (without in) = to regard something as true	We believe in God. I believe everything he says.
# Besides / In addition to / [*Except]	We have many more publications besides / in addition to these. (‘besides’ is colloquial)
# Boast of / about [*for] (‘of’ is more literary, formal, or older style)	James boasted about / of his strength.
# Buy for / atFor exact amounts and sums, ‘for’ is used; ‘at’ is used for weights or measures.	We bought a new server for $4000. The material can be synthesized for/at $10 per square meter. The non-synthetic form sells at $18 per square meter on the market.
# Careful of / with / about [*for] cf. ‘take care of’	Elle is very careful about her health. You should be more careful with your money. He takes care of his money.
# Close to [*from]	The new apartment is quite close to the station.
# Complain about [*for] For illnesses: ‘complain of’	Annette complained about the weather. She complained of a sore throat.
# Composed of [*from]	Our class is composed of thirty students.
# Congratulate on/forOn refers to an occasion or event, while for refers more to the reason for congratulating someone.	I congratulate you on the New Year. I congratulate you for your successful project.
# Consist of [*from]	Different proposals for calendars for the Martian year include suggestions for a year consisting of 24 months.
# Contact [*contact to]	Please contact your insurance agent rather than the police.
# Covered with [?by] ‘covered with’ is for descriptions; ‘covered by’ refers to an act or result of covering	The mountains are covered with snow. The child was covered in snow. [i.e., was fully covered or enveloped in snow] The car was covered by the debris, but the accident was covered by our insurance.
# Cure of [*from] The noun ‘cure’ takes ‘for’.	The man was cured of his illness. There’s no cure for that disease.
# Deprive of [*from]	Nelson Mandela was deprived of his freedom for years.
# Die of an illness > die from an illness The phrase die of is more common than die from X in contemporary English; the phrase die from X may put slightly more emphasis on X as an active cause.	Many people have died of malaria. People die of illness, of hunger, of thirst, of or from wounds; from overwork, by violence, by the sword, by pestilence, in battle, for their country, for a cause, through neglect, on the scaffold, at the stake.
# Different from [*than]; UK English: Different to	My book is really different from yours.
# Disappointed by, about or at from [1] by/at/ about [2] with/ inBefore a person we use with or in, before a thing we use at, about, by; and before a gerund we use at	Phillipa was disappointed by the low mark she got on the test. Jane was disappointed with/in her son. Keith is very disappointed at not winning the prize.
# Divide into parts [*in] A thing can also be divided in half or in two.	I divided the cake into four pieces. Paul divided the apple in half (or in two).
# Doubt: no doubt about / in [*for] Doubtful of‘Doubt about’ may be more common that ‘doubt in’; the latter makes more of a contrast with ‘believe in.’	I have no doubt in / about his ability. I’m doubtful of his ability to pass.
# Dressed in [*with]	The woman was dressed in black. The woman was in black.
# Exception to [*of] With the exception of Except for	This is an exception to the rules. She like all her subjects with the exception of physics. All the new students are smart except for George.
# Exchange for [*by] In exchange for	He exchanged his collection of match boxes for some foreign stamps. He traded his old car in exchange for a new one.
# Fail in [*from]	He failed in math last year. He failed chemistry this year.
# Full of [*with / from] Fill with	The jar was full of oil. Jane filled the glass with water.
# Get rid of [*from]	I’ll be glad to get rid of him.
# Glad about [*from/with] Or with an infinitive: glad to	I was glad about receiving your letter. I was glad to receive your letter.
# Good at (in)Also: ‘bad at, clever at, quick at, slow at,’ etc.; but ‘weak in’ Note: “He is good in class” means that his conduct is good.	My sister is good (in math) / at math. He is weak in grammar. He is quite clever at physics, but not so clever when it comes to engineering.
# Guard against [*from]	You must guard against bad habits.
# Guilty of [*for]	He was found guilty of embezzling two million dollars of company funds.
# Independent of [*from] Dependent on	Clare is independent of her parents. The student is overly dependent on his parents.
# Indifferent to [*for]	They are indifferent to politics.
# Influence on [*to] The verb takes a direct object with no preposition.	This has had a great influence on our thinking. This has greatly influenced our thinking.
# Insist on [*to]	He always insisted on his opinion.
# Interested in [*for] Also: take an interest in	She is not interested for in her work. She takes a great interest in music.
# Jealous of [*from]	He is very jealous of his brother.
# Leave for (a place) [*to]	They are leaving to for England soon.
# Live on / off of [*from] Feed on	He lives on his brother’s money. He lives off of his brother’s money. Some birds feed on insects.
# Look at [?to] ‘Look to’ is more literary, meaning ‘behold, behold as an example, turn to.’ Also: gaze at, stare at, etc., but look after (= take care of), look for (=try to find), look over (=examine), look into (=examine closely), look on or upon (=consider), look down on (=have a low opinion of), look up to (=respect), look out for (=expect), look forward to (= expect with pleasure), look to (= rely on).</ref>	Look at his beautiful picture.
# In my opinion [*according to]	In my opinion, this experiment should proceed more cautiously.
# Panic about [*with]	Don’t panic about it.
# Persist in	He persisted in his silly ideas.
# Room for [*place for]	Is there room in the lab for another computer?
# Related to [*with]	Their theory is not so novel; it is actually related to an older theory from the 1960s.
# Spend on / for‘On’ indicates activity, and is more common; ‘for’ indicates the purpose, goal or object.	I spend a lot of time on editing. I spend a lot of time on my freelance work. I spent a lot of money for my degree.
# Tie to [*on]	The animal had to be tied to the table.
# Travel by train [*with the train] (or other vehicle) We travel by train, by boat, by bike; also, by land, by sea, by air, by bus; in a bus or on a bus; by car or in a car, by taxi or in a taxi; on horse-back, on a donkey, on a bicycle; on foot	He traveled by train yesterday.
# Warn (someone) of [*about] (a danger)	Subjects must be warned of the potential for headaches from the experiment.

3 Other easily confused words

The following terms can be confusing for those learning English as a second language.

To see vs to watch	To see means to be aware of what is around you by using one's eyes, to perceive. I can see the smoke from here. To watch means to look at something for a period of time, especially something that is changing or moving. I watched the cricket. We watch things that move, such as TV, a film, or sports. We look at static things, such as a photograph, a painting, or the stars.
Shortage vs. shortness	Shortage is a noun meaning when there is not enough of something. There is a shortage of skilled workers in the industry. Shortness is also a noun meaning the condition of being short spatially. Shortness in children and young adults nearly always results from below-average growth in childhood.
So vs. such	So when used as in front of an adjective or an adverbs means ‘very.’ My English teacher is so patient. She teaches us so well. Such when used as a determiner can be used before a noun to show extremes,you can not use it before adverb. She is such a patient teacher. Remember that without the noun you need to use so. Such a patient teacher So patient as a teacher
Speak, talk, tell, say	One speaks a language or a statement; one says words, discourse, or something general; one tells a story or information. Excuse me, but do you speak English? Could you tell me how to get to City Hall. What's wrong -- can't you say anything?

3.1 VERB + -ing

The following main verbs take a second verb in the -ing gerund form, not the to form.

Have difficulty	*We had no difficulty in doing it. We had no difficulty doing it. (slightly more colloquial; ‘doing...’ = participle phrase) ?We had no difficulty to do it. [not so common]
Look forward to	We are looking forward to read reading the results.
Object to	We object to be being treated like this.
Prevent from	The monsoon prevented us to conduct from conducting our survey.
Practice	You need to practice to write writing formal English.
Risk	We couldn’t risk to leave leaving the computer running during the storm.
Think of	We often think to conduct of conducting field research in Las Vegas.

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