Runes

Runes or runic alphabets were writing systems used by Germanic tribes for Germanic dialects like Old German and Anglo-Saxon. The dates of their use generally precede the adoption of the Latin alphabet for Germanic langauges, though the exact dates are debated among scholars. Runic inscriptions have been found on artifacts and inscriptions on various objects from the 2nd to the 8th centuries. The most common forms of runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (Fuþark), Older Futhark (Futhark), and Germanic Futhark. In Scandinavia, beginning from the late 8th century, the older runic script was simplified to the so-called Younger Futhark, and the Anglo-Saxons and Frisians extended the Elder Futhark, which eventually became the Anglo-Saxon futhorc. Anglo-Saxon futhorc and the Younger Futharks were used into the Early and the High Middle Ages. The runes and other symbols (such as Germanic compass and direction symbols) are sometimes associated with paganism; however, these were writing systems and symbols that were universally used in older Germanic languages, and were used in Christian and pagan texts and inscriptions.

The runes of the Elder Futhark are as follows.

Value	UCS	Transliteration	IPA	Proto-Germanic name	Meaning
f	ᚠ	f	/f/	*fehu	"cattle; wealth"
u	ᚢ	u	/u(ː)/	?*ūruz	"aurochs" (or *ûram "water/slag"?)
th,þ	ᚦ	þ	/θ/, /ð/	?*þurisaz	"giant" (or *þunraz "the god Thunraz")
a	ᚨ	a	/a(ː)/	*ansuz	"god" ("the god Wodinaz"[citation needed])
r	ᚱ	r	/r/	*raidō	"ride, journey"
k	ᚲ	k (c)	/k/	?*kaunan	"ulcer"? (or *kenaz "torch"?)
g	ᚷ	g	/ɡ/	*gebō	"gift"
w	ᚹ	w	/w/	*wunjō	"joy"
h h	ᚺ ᚻ	h	/h/	*hagalaz	"hail" (the precipitation)
n	ᚾ	n	/n/	*naudiz	"need"
i	ᛁ	i	/i(ː)/	*īsaz	"ice"
j	ᛃ	j	/j/	*jēra-	"year, good year, harvest"
ï,ei	ᛇ	ï (æ)	/æː/	*ī(h)waz	"yew-tree"
p	ᛈ	p	/p/	?*perþ-	meaning unclear, perhaps "pear-tree".
z	ᛉ	z	/z/	?*algiz	"elk" (or "protection, defence")
s s	ᛊ ᛋ	s	/s/	*sōwilō	"Sun"
t	ᛏ	t	/t/	*tīwaz	"the god Tiwaz"
b	ᛒ	b	/b/	*berkanan	"birch"
e	ᛖ	e	/e(ː)/	*ehwaz	"horse"
m	ᛗ	m	/m/	*mannaz	"man"
l	ᛚ	l	/l/	*laguz	"water, lake" (or possibly *laukaz "leek")
ŋ ŋ ŋ	ᛜ ᛝ	ŋ	/ŋ/	*ingwaz	"the god Ingwaz"
o	ᛟ	o	/o(ː)/	*ōþila-/*ōþala-	"heritage, estate, possession"
d	ᛞ	d	/d/	*dagaz	"day"